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Outdated classification of humans

This article is about the outdated race concept. For the peoples of the Caucasus Mountains, run into Peoples of the Caucasus. For the Us racial classification "White" or "Caucasian", encounter White Americans. For other uses of the term "Caucasian", run into Caucasian (disambiguation).

The Caucasian race (besides Caucasoid [a] or Europid, Europoid)[2] is an obsolete racial classification of human beings based on a now-disproven theory of biological race.[3] [4] [v] The Caucasian race was historically regarded equally a biological taxon which, depending on which of the historical race classifications was being used, usually included ancient and modernistic populations from all or parts of Europe, Southwest asia, Central Asia, Southern asia, N Africa, and the Horn of Africa.[6] [vii]

First introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history,[b] the term denoted one of 3 purported major races of humankind (those three being Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid).[12] In biological anthropology, Caucasoid has been used equally an umbrella term for phenotypically similar groups from these unlike regions, with a focus on skeletal anatomy, and especially cranial morphology, without regard to skin tone.[13] Ancient and modern "Caucasoid" populations were thus not exclusively "white", only ranged in complexion from white-skinned to dark brown.[14]

Since the second half of the 20th century, physical anthropologists have switched from a typological agreement of human being biological diversity towards a genomic and population-based perspective, and have tended to understand race every bit a social nomenclature of humans based on phenotype and ancestry as well as cultural factors, every bit the concept is also understood in the social sciences.[15]

In the United States, the root term Caucasian is all the same in utilize as a synonym for white or of European, Middle Eastern, or North African ancestry,[16] [17] [18] a usage that has been criticized.[xix] [20] [21]

History of the concept

The Caucasus as the origin of humanity and the superlative of beauty

In the eighteenth century, the prevalent view amongst European scholars was that the human species had its origin in the region of the Caucasus Mountains.[22] This view was based upon the Caucasus existence the location for the purported landing betoken of Noah'due south Ark – from whom the Bible states that humanity is descended – and the location for the suffering of Prometheus, who in Hesiod'due south myth had crafted humankind from clay.[22]

In addition, the most beautiful humans were reputed by Europeans to be the stereotypical "Circassian beauties" and the Georgian people; both Georgia and Circassia are in the Caucasus region.[23] [22] The "Circassian beauty" stereotype had its roots in the Heart Ages, while the reputation for the attractiveness of the Georgian people was developed by early modern travellers to the region such every bit Jean Chardin.[22] [24]

Göttingen School of History

Christoph Meiners' 1785 treatise The Outline of History of Flesh was the first work to use the term Caucasian (Kaukasisch) in its wider racial sense. (click on image for English translation of the text)

The term Caucasian equally a racial category was first introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen School of History – notably Christoph Meiners in 1785 and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1795[b] [ folio needed ]—information technology had originally referred in a narrow sense to the native inhabitants of the Caucasus region.[25]

In his The Outline of History of Mankind (1785), the German philosopher Christoph Meiners first used the concept of a "Caucasian" (Kaukasisch) race in its wider racial sense.[b] [ page needed ] [26] Meiners' term was given wider circulation in the 1790s by many people.[c] Meiners imagined that the Caucasian race encompassed all of the ancient and most of the modern native populations of Europe, the ancient inhabitants of West Asia (including the Phoenicians, Hebrews and Arabs), the autochthones of Northern Africa (Berbers, Egyptians, Abyssinians and neighboring groups), the Indians, and the ancient Guanches.[36]

Drawing of the skull of a Georgian female person by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, used every bit an archetype for the Caucasian racial characteristics in his 1795 De Generis Humani Varietate

It was Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, a colleague of Meiners', who later came to be considered one of the founders of the subject field of anthropology, who gave the term a wider audition, by grounding it in the new methods of craniometry and Linnean taxonomy.[37] Blumenbach did not credit Meiners with his taxonomy, although his justification conspicuously points to Meiners' aesthetic viewpoint of Caucasus origins.[38] In contrast to Meiners, however, Blumenbach was a monogenist—he considered all humans to have a shared origin and to be a single species. Blumenbach, like Meiners, did rank his Caucasian grouping college than other groups in terms of mental faculties or potential for achievement[37] despite pointing out that the transition from one race to another is then gradual that the distinctions between the races presented by him are "very arbitrary".[39]

Alongside the anthropologist Georges Cuvier, Blumenbach classified the Caucasian race by cranial measurements and bone morphology in improver to pare pigmentation.[40] Following Meiners, Blumenbach described the Caucasian race as consisting of the native inhabitants of Europe, West Asia, the Indian peninsula, and North Africa.[ citation needed ] This usage afterward grew into the widely used color terminology for race, contrasting with the terms Negroid, Mongoloid, and Australoid.[41]

Carleton Coon

In that location was never whatever consensus among the proponents of the concept the existence of a "Caucasoid race" with regard to how it would be delineated from other proposed groups such as the proposed Mongoloid race. Carleton S. Coon (1939) included the populations native to all of Central and Northern Asia, including the Ainu people, nether the Caucasoid characterization. However, many scientists maintained the racial categorizations of color established past Meiners' and Blumenbach'south works, along with many other early on steps of anthropology, well into the tardily 19th and mid-to-late 20th centuries, increasingly used to justify political policies, such as segregation and immigration restrictions, and other opinions based in prejudice. For example, Thomas Henry Huxley (1870) classified all populations of Asian nations every bit Mongoloid. Lothrop Stoddard (1920) in turn classified every bit "brown" most of the populations of the Middle East, Northward Africa, the Horn of Africa, Cardinal Asia and South Asia. He counted as "white" only European peoples and their descendants, every bit well as a few populations in areas side by side to or contrary southern Europe, in parts of Anatolia and parts of the Rif and Atlas mountains.

In 1939, Coon argued that the Caucasian race had originated through admixture between Homo neanderthalensis and Human being sapiens of the "Mediterranean type" which he considered to exist distinct from Caucasians, rather than a subtype of it equally others had done.[42] While Blumenbach had erroneously thought that light skin color was bequeathed to all humans and the dark pare of southern populations was due to sun, Coon thought that Caucasians had lost their original pigmentation as they moved N.[42] Coon used the term "Caucasoid" and "White race" synonymously.[43]

In 1962, Coon published The Origin of Races, wherein he proposed a polygenist view, that human races had evolved separately from local varieties of Homo erectus. Dividing humans into five principal races, and argued that each evolved in parallel only at unlike rates, and so that some races had reached higher levels of evolution than others.[15] He argued that the Caucasoid race had evolved 200,000 years prior to the "Congoid race", and hence represented a higher evolutionary stage.[44]

Coon argued that Caucasoid traits emerged prior to the Cro-Magnons, and were present in the Skhul and Qafzeh hominids.[45] However, these fossils and the Predmost specimen were held to be Neanderthaloid derivatives because they possessed short cervical vertebrae, lower and narrower pelves, and had some Neanderthal skull traits. Coon farther asserted that the Caucasoid race was of dual origin, consisting of early dolichocephalic (e.g. Galley Hill, Combe-Capelle, Téviec) and Neolithic Mediterranean Man sapiens (e.g. Muge, Long Barrow, Corded), besides as Neanderthal-influenced brachycephalic Human sapiens dating to the Mesolithic and Neolithic (e.g. Afalou, Hvellinge, Fjelkinge).[46]

Coon's theories on race were much disputed in his lifetime,[44] and are considered pseudoscientific in modern anthropology.[47] [48] [49] [50] [51]

Criticism based on modern genetics

Later on discussing diverse criteria used in biological science to ascertain subspecies or races, Alan R. Templeton concludes in 2016: "[T]he respond to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no."[52] : 360

Racial anthropology

Concrete traits

Skull and teeth

Drawing from Petrus Camper's theory of facial bending, Blumenbach and Cuvier classified races, through their skull collections based on their cranial features and anthropometric measurements. Caucasoid traits were recognised as: thin nasal aperture ("nose narrow"), a minor oral cavity, facial bending of 100–90°, and orthognathism, exemplified by what Blumenbach saw in most aboriginal Greek crania and statues.[53] [54] Later anthropologists of the 19th and early 20th century such every bit Pritchard, Pickering, Broca, Topinard, Morton, Peschel, Seligman, Bean, Ripley, Haddon and Dixon came to recognize other Caucasoid morphological features, such as prominent supraorbital ridges and a precipitous nasal sill.[55] Many anthropologists in the 20th century used the term "Caucasoid" in their literature, such as Boyd, Gates, Coon, Cole, Brues and Krantz replacing the earlier term "Caucasian" as it had fallen out of usage.[56]

Classification

In the 19th century Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885–1890), Caucasoid was one of the iii not bad races of humankind, alongside Mongoloid and Negroid. The taxon was taken to consist of a number of subtypes. The Caucasoid peoples were commonly divided into three groups on ethnolinguistic grounds, termed Aryan (Indo-European), Semitic (Semitic languages), and Hamitic (Hamitic languages i.e. Berber-Cushitic-Egyptian).[57]

19th century classifications of the peoples of Bharat were initially uncertain if the Dravidians and the Sinahalese were Caucasoid or a dissever Dravida race, but past and in the 20th century, anthropologists predominantly alleged Dravidians to exist Caucasoid.[58] [59] [threescore]

Historically, the racial nomenclature of the Turkic peoples was sometimes given as "Turanid". Turanid racial type or "small-scale race", subtype of the Europid (Caucasian) race with Mongoloid admixtures, situated at the boundary of the distribution of the Mongoloid and Europid "keen races".[61] [62]

There was no universal consensus of the validity of the "Caucasoid" grouping within those who attempted to categorize man variation. Thomas Henry Huxley in 1870 wrote that the "cool denomination of 'Caucasian'" was in fact a conflation of his Xanthochroi (Nordic) and Melanochroi (Mediterranean) types.[63]

Subraces

The postulated subraces vary depending on the author, including only not limited to Mediterranean, Atlantid, Nordic, East Baltic, Alpine, Dinaric, Turanid, Armenoid, Iranid, Indid, Arabid, and Hamitic.[64]

H.G. Wells argued that across Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, West Asia, Key Asia and South asia, a Caucasian physical stock existed. He divided this racial element into ii main groups: a shorter and darker Mediterranean or Iberian race and a taller and lighter Nordic race. Wells asserted that Semitic and Hamitic populations were mainly of Mediterranean blazon, and Aryan populations were originally of Nordic type. He regarded the Basques every bit descendants of early Mediterranean peoples, who inhabited western Europe before the inflow of Aryan Celts from the management of central Europe.[65]

The "Northcaucasian race" is a sub-race proposed by Carleton S. Coon (1930).[66] Information technology comprises the native populations of the N Caucasus, the Balkars, Karachays and Vainakh (Chechens and Ingushs).[67] [68]

An introduction to anthropology, published in 1953,[69] gives a more complex classification scheme:

  • "Archaic Caucasoid Races": Ainu people in Japan, Australoid race, Dravidian peoples, and Vedda
  • "Main Caucasoid Races": Alpine race, Armenoid race, Mediterranean race, and Nordic race
  • "Secondary or Derived Caucasoid Races": Dinaric race, East Baltic race, and Polynesian race[70]

Usage in the United states of america

Besides its use in anthropology and related fields, the term "Caucasian" has ofttimes been used in the United states in a different, social context to depict a group commonly called "white people".[71] "White" also appears equally a self-reporting entry in the U.Southward. Census.[72] Naturalization as a United States citizen was restricted to "complimentary white persons" by the Naturalization Act of 1790, and afterward extended to other resident populations by the Naturalization Act of 1870, Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 and Clearing and Nationality Act of 1952. The Supreme Courtroom in U.s.a. five. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923) decided that Asian Indians were ineligible for citizenship considering, though deemed "Caucasian" anthropologically, they were non white like European descendants since most laypeople did not consider them to be "white" people. This represented a change from the Supreme Court's earlier stance in Ozawa five. United States, in which it had expressly approved of two lower court cases holding "high caste Hindus" to be "complimentary white persons" within the significant of the naturalization act. Government lawyers later on recognized that the Supreme Court had "withdrawn" this approval in Thind.[73] In 1946, the U.South. Congress passed a new law establishing a small clearing quota for Indians, which also permitted them to get citizens. Major changes to immigration law, nonetheless, only later came in 1965, when many earlier racial restrictions on immigration were lifted.[74] This resulted in defoliation about whether American Hispanics are included as "white", as the term Hispanic originally applied to Castilian heritage but has since expanded to include all people with origins in Spanish speaking countries. In other countries, the term Hispanic is rarely used.

The Us National Library of Medicine often used the term "Caucasian" as a race in the past. All the same, it afterwards discontinued such usage in favor of the more than narrow geographical term European, which traditionally just practical to a subset of Caucasoids.[75]

See likewise

  • Race (human categorization)
  • Race and genetics
  • Anthropometry
  • Leucism
  • Race and ethnicity in the U.s.a. Census

Notes

  1. ^ The traditional anthropological term Caucasoid is a conflation of the demonym Caucasian and the Greek suffix eidos (pregnant "form", "shape", "resemblance") implying a resemblance to the native inhabitants of the Caucasus. It etymologically contrasts with the terms Negroid, Mongoloid and Australoid.[1] For a contrast with the "Mongolic" or Mongoloid race, see footnote #4 pp. 58–59 in Beckwith, Christopher (2009). Empires of the Silk Route: A History of Primal Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2. OCLC 800915872.
  2. ^ a b c Cited by contributing editor to a group of four works by Baum,[viii] Woodward,[9] Rupke,[10] and Simon.[11]
  3. ^ Cited by contributing editor to a group of nine works by Mario,[27] Isaac,[28] Schiebinger,[29] Rupp-Eisenreich,[30] Dougherty,[31] Hochman,[32] Mikkelsen,[33] Painter,[34] and Binden.[35]

References

  1. ^ Freedman, B. J. (1984). "For debate... Caucasian". British Medical Journal. Routledge. 288 (6418): 696–98. doi:10.1136/bmj.288.6418.696. PMC1444385. PMID 6421437.
  2. ^ Pearson, Roger (1985). Anthropological glossary. R. Due east. Krieger Pub. Co. p. 79. Retrieved July 21, 2015.
  3. ^ Templeton, A. (2016). "Evolution and Notions of Human Race". In Losos, J.; Lenski, R. (eds.). How Development Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biological science and Society. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Printing. pp. 346–361. doi:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26. ... the answer to the question whether races exist in humans is clear and unambiguous: no.
  4. ^ Wagner, Jennifer G.; Yu, Joon-Ho; Ifekwunigwe, Jayne O.; Harrell, Tanya G.; Bamshad, Michael J.; Purple, Charmaine D. (February 2017). "Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (ii): 318–327. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23120. PMC5299519. PMID 27874171.
  5. ^ American Clan of Concrete Anthropologists (March 27, 2019). "AAPA Statement on Race and Racism". American Clan of Physical Anthropologists . Retrieved June 19, 2020.
  6. ^ Coon, Carleton Stevens (1939). The Races of Europe. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 400–401. This third racial zone stretches from Spain beyond the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Western farsi highlands; and across Afghanistan into Bharat [...] The Mediterranean racial zone stretches unbroken from Spain beyond the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence eastward to India [...] A branch of it extends far southward on both sides of the Red Body of water into southern Arabia, the Ethiopian highlands, and the Horn of Africa.
  7. ^ Coon, Carleton Stevens; Hunt, Edward East. (1966). The Living Races of Homo. London: Jonathan Greatcoat. p. 93. Late Capsians from Northward Africa are clearly Caucasoid and, more specifically, almost entirely Mediterranean.
  8. ^ Baum 2006, pp. 84–85: "Finally, Christoph Meiners (1747–1810), the Academy of Göttingen 'pop philosopher' and historian, first gave the term Caucasian racial meaning in his Grundriss der Geschichte der Menschheit (Outline of the History of Humanity; 1785) ... Meiners pursued this 'Göttingen programme' of inquiry in all-encompassing historical-anthropological writings, which included two editions of his Outline of the History of Humanity and numerous manufactures in Göttingisches Historisches Magazin"
  9. ^ William R. Woodward (June 9, 2015). Hermann Lotze: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 260. ISBN978-one-316-29785-8. ... the v man races identified by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach – Negroes, American Indians, Malaysians, Mongolians, and Caucasians. He chose to rely on Blumenbach, leader of the Göttingen school of comparative beefcake
  10. ^ Nicolaas A. Rupke (2002). G̦ttingen and the Development of the Natural Sciences. Wallstein-Verlag. ISBN978-iii-89244-611-viii. For it was at Gottingen in this period that the outlines of a system of nomenclature were laid down in a way that still shapes the fashion in which we try to embrace the different varieties of humankind Рincluding usage of such terms as 'Caucasian'.
  11. ^ Charles Simon-Aaron (2008). The Atlantic Slave Trade: Empire, Enlightenment, and the Cult of the Unthinking Negro. Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN978-0-7734-5197-one. Here, Blumenbach placed the white European at the apex of the human family; he even gave the European a new name – i.e., Caucasian. This human relationship likewise inspired the academic labors of Karl Otfried Muller, C. Meiners and K. A. Heumann, the more important thinkers at Gottingen for our project. (This list is not intended to be exhaustive.)
  12. ^ Pickering, Robert (2009). The Use of Forensic Anthropology. CRC Press. p. 82. ISBN978-1-4200-6877-1.
  13. ^ Pickering, Robert (2009). The Use of Forensic Anthropology. CRC Printing. p. 109. ISBN978-1-4200-6877-i.
  14. ^ Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1865). Thomas Bendyshe (ed.). The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. Anthropological Society. pp. 265, 303, 367.
  15. ^ a b Caspari, Rachel (2003). "From types to populations: A century of race, physical anthropology, and the American Anthropological Association" (PDF). American Anthropologist. 105 (1): 65–76. doi:10.1525/aa.2003.105.1.65. hdl:2027.42/65890.
  16. ^ "Race".
  17. ^ Bhopal, R.; Donaldson, L. (1998). "White, European, Western, Caucasian, or what? Inappropriate labeling in enquiry on race, ethnicity, and health". American Journal of Public Wellness. 88 (ix): 1303–1307. doi:10.2105/ajph.88.9.1303. PMC1509085. PMID 9736867.
  18. ^ Baum 2006, p. 3,xviii.
  19. ^ Herbst, Philip (June fifteen, 1997). The color of words: an encyclopaedic dictionary of indigenous bias in the United States. Intercultural Printing. ISBN978-1-877864-97-one. Though discredited as an anthropological term and not recommended in most editorial guidelines, it is still heard and used, for example, as a category on forms asking for indigenous identification. It is also still used for police blotters (the abbreviated Cauc may be heard amidst law) and appears elsewhere equally a euphemism. Its synonym, Caucasoid, also once used in anthropology but now dated and considered debasing, is disappearing.
  20. ^ Mukhopadhyay, Carol C. (June 30, 2008). "Getting Rid of the Word 'Caucasian'". In Mica Pollock (ed.). Everyday Antiracism: Getting Real Near Race in Schoolhouse. New Press. pp. xiv–. ISBN978-i-59558-567-seven. Nevertheless there is one hit exception in our modem racial vocabulary: the term 'Caucasian'. Despite existence a remnant of a discredited theory of racial classification, the term has persisted into the twenty-commencement century, within as well as exterior of the educational community. Information technology is loftier time nosotros got rid of the word Caucasian. Some might protest that it is 'only a label'. But language is one of the most systematic, subtle, and significant vehicles for transmitting racial ideology. Terms that describe imagined groups, such as Caucasian, encapsulate those beliefs. Every fourth dimension nosotros apply them and uncritically expose students to them, we are reinforcing rather than dismantling the old racialized worldview. Using the discussion Caucasian invokes scientific racism, the fake idea that races are naturally occurring, biologically ranked subdivisions of the human species and that Caucasians are the superior race. Beyond this, the characterization Caucasian can even convey messages about which groups take civilisation and are entitled to recognition as Americans.
  21. ^ Dewanjuly, Shaila (July 6, 2013). "Has 'Caucasian' Lost Its Significant?". The New York Times . Retrieved March 16, 2018. AS a racial nomenclature, the term Caucasian has many flaws, dating every bit information technology does from a fourth dimension when the study of race was based on skull measurements and travel diaries ... Its equivalents from that era are obsolete – nobody refers to Asians as 'Mongolian' or blacks as 'Negroid'. ... There is no legal reason to use it. It rarely appears in federal statutes, and the Census Bureau has never put a checkbox by the give-and-take Caucasian. (White is an choice.) ... The Supreme Court, which can exist more than colloquial, has used the term in merely 64 cases, including a pair from the 1920s that reveal its limitations ... In 1889, the editors of the original Oxford English Lexicon noted that the term Caucasian had been 'practically discarded'. Just they spoke also soon. Blumenbach's dominance had given the word a pseudoscientific sheen that preserved its appeal. Even at present, the give-and-take gives discussions of race a weird technocratic gravitas, equally when the constabulary insist that you step out of your 'vehicle' instead of your car ... Susan Glisson, who every bit the executive director of the William Wintertime Found for Racial Reconciliation in Oxford, Miss., regularly witnesses Southerners sorting through their racial vocabulary, said she rarely hears 'Caucasian'. 'Almost of the folks who work in this field know that it's a completely ridiculous term to assign to whites,' she said. 'I retrieve it's a term of last resort for people who are really uncomfortable talking about race. They employ the term that's going to make them exist equally distant from it every bit possible.'
  22. ^ a b c d Baum 2006, p. 82.
  23. ^ Figal 2010, pp. 81–84.
  24. ^ Chardin, 1686, Periodical du voyage du chevalier Chardin en Perse et aux Indes Orientales par la Mer Noire et par la Colchide, p.204, "Le sang de Géorgie est le plus swain d'Orient, et je puis dire du monde, je n'ai pas remarqué un laid visage en ce païs la, parmi l'united nations et l'autre sexe: mais j'y en ay vû d'Angeliques."
  25. ^ For instance, such as in the Allgemeine Erdbeschreibung published past Meyer in 1777: Allgemeine Erdbeschreibung: Asien - Book 3. Meyer. 1777. p. 1435.
  26. ^ Meiners, Christoph (1785). Grundriss der Geschichte der Menschheit. Im Verlage der Meyerschen Buchhandlung. pp. 25–.
  27. ^ Luigi Marino, I Maestri della Germania (1975) OCLC 797567391; translated into German as Praeceptores Germaniae: Göttingen 1770–1820 OCLC 34194206
  28. ^ B. Isaac, The invention of racism in classical antiquity, Princeton University Press, 2004, p. 105 OCLC 51942570
  29. ^ Londa Schiebinger, The Beefcake of Difference: Race and Sex in Eighteenth-Century Science, Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 23, No. four, Special Issue: The Politics of Difference, Summer, 1990, pp. 387–405
  30. ^ B. Rupp-Eisenreich, "Des Choses Occultes en Histoire des Sciences Humaines: le Destin de la 'Science Nouvelle' de Christoph Meiners", Fifty'Ethnographie v.ii (1983), p. 151
  31. ^ F. Dougherty, "Christoph Meiners und Johann Friedrich Blumenbach im Streit um den Begriff der Menschenrasse," in Thou. Mann and F. Dumont, eds., Die Natur des Menschen , pp. 103–04
  32. ^ Hochman, Leah (October 10, 2014). The Ugliness of Moses Mendelssohn: Aesthetics, Organized religion & Morality in the Eighteenth Century. Routledge. pp. 74–. ISBN978-i-317-66997-5.
  33. ^ Mikkelsen, Jon M. (Baronial 1, 2013). Kant and the Concept of Race: Late Eighteenth-Century Writings. SUNY Press. pp. 196–. ISBN978-1-4384-4363-8.
  34. ^ Painter, N. "Why White People are Called Caucasian?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on Oct 20, 2013. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
  35. ^ Another online document reviews the early history of race theory.18th and 19th Century Views of Human Variation The treatises of Blumenbach can be found online here.
  36. ^ The New American Cyclopaedia: A Pop Dictionary of Full general Noesis, Volume 4. Appleton. 1870. p. 588.
  37. ^ a b Bhopal R (December 2007). "The beautiful skull and Blumenbach's errors: the birth of the scientific concept of race". BMJ. 335 (7633): 1308–09. CiteSeerX10.1.1.969.2221. doi:10.1136/bmj.39413.463958.80. PMC2151154. PMID 18156242.
  38. ^ Baum 2006, p. 88: "The connectedness between Meiners's ideas most a Caucasian branch of humanity and Blumenbach's later conception of a Caucasian multifariousness (eventually, a Caucasian race) is not completely clear. What is clear is that the two editions of Meiners'southward Outline were published between the second edition of Blumenbach's On the Natural Variety of Mankind and the third edition, where Blumenbach get-go used the term Caucasian. Blumenbach cited Meiners once in 1795, but only to include Meiners'south 1793 division of humanity into "handsome and white" and "ugly and dark" peoples among several culling "divisions of the varieties of mankind." Nonetheless Blumenbach must accept been aware of Meiners's before designation of Caucasian and Mongolian branches of humanity, equally the two men knew each other as colleagues at the University of Göttingen. The way that Blumenbach embraced the term Caucasian suggests that he worked to altitude his own anthropological thinking from that of Meiners while recovering the term Caucasian for his ain more refined racial nomenclature: he made no mention of Meiners's 1785 usage and gave the term a new significant.
  39. ^ German: "sehr willkürlich": Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1797). Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. p. 61. Retrieved May 24, 2020. Alle diese Verschiedenheiten fließen aber durch so mancherley Abstufungen und Uebergänge so unvermerkt zusammen, daß sich keine andre, als sehr willkürliche Grenzen zwischen ihnen festsetzen lassen.
  40. ^ On the Natural Variety of Mankind, 3rd ed. (1795) in Bendyshe: 264–65; "racial confront," 229.
  41. ^ Freedman, B. J. (1984). "For debate... Caucasian". British Medical Journal. Routledge. 288 (6418): 696–98. doi:x.1136/bmj.288.6418.696. PMC1444385. PMID 6421437.
  42. ^ a b Coon, Carleton (Apr 1939). The Races of Europe. The Macmillan Company. p. 51.
  43. ^ The Races of Europe, Chapter XIII, Section two Archived May 11, 2006, at annal.today
  44. ^ a b Jackson Jr, J. P. (2001). ""In Means Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton Due south. Coon'due south The Origin of Races". Periodical of the History of Biology. 34 (2): 247–85. doi:10.1023/a:1010366015968. S2CID 86739986.
  45. ^ The Origin of Races. Random House Inc., 1962, p. 570.
  46. ^ Coon, Carleton Stevens (1939). The Races of Europe. The Macmillan Company. pp. 26–28, l–55.
  47. ^ Sachs Collopy, Peter (2015). "Race Relationships: Collegiality and Demarcation in Physical Anthropology". Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences. 51 (three): 237–260. doi:10.1002/jhbs.21728. PMID 25950769.
  48. ^ Spickard, Paul (2016). "The Return of Scientific Racism? Deoxyribonucleic acid Beginnings Testing, Race, and the New Eugenics Movement". Race in Heed: Critical Essays. University of Notre Matriarch Press. p. 157. doi:ten.2307/j.ctvpj76k0.eleven. ISBN978-0-268-04148-9. JSTOR j.ctvpj76k0.xi. For more than 4 decades beginning in the belatedly 1930s, the Harvard anthropologist Carleton Coon wrote a serial of big books for an ever shrinking audience in which he pushed a pseudoscientific racial bending of analysis.
  49. ^ Selcer, Perrin (2012). "Across the Cephalic Index: Negotiating Politics to Produce UNESCO's Scientific Statements on Race". Current Anthropology. 53 (S5): S180. doi:x.1086/662290. S2CID 146652143. Near disturbingly for liberal anthropologists, the new generation of racist "pseudoscience" threatened to render to mainstream respectability in 1962 with the publication of Carleton Coon's The Origin of Races (Coon 1962).
  50. ^ Loewen, James Westward. (2005). Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism. New York: New Press. p. 462. ISBN9781565848870. Carleton Coon, whose The Origin of Races [...] claimed that Homo sapiens evolved five dissimilar times, blacks last. Its poor reception by anthropologists, followed past evidence from archaeology and paleontology that mankind evolved in one case, and in Africa, finally put an end to such pseudoscience.
  51. ^ Regal, Brian (2011). "The Life of Grover Krantz". Searching for Sasquatch. Palgrave Studies in the History of Science and Technology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 93–94. doi:ten.1057/9780230118294_5. ISBN978-0-230-11829-four. Carleton Coon fully embraced typology as a way to determine the ground of racial and ethnic difference [...] Unfortunately for him, American anthropology increasingly equated typology with pseudoscience.
  52. ^ Templeton, A. (2016). EVOLUTION AND NOTIONS OF HUMAN RACE. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Order (pp. 346-361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26.
  53. ^ "Miriam Claude Meijer, Race and Aesthetics in the Anthropology of Petrus Camper", 1722–1789, Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999, pp. 169–74.
  54. ^ Bertoletti, Stefano Fabbri. 1994. The anthropological theory of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach. In Romanticism in science, science in Europe, 1790–1840.
  55. ^ See private literature for such Caucasoid identifications, while the post-obit article gives a brief overview: How "Caucasoids" Got Such Big Crania and Why They Shrank: From Morton to Rushton, Leonard Lieberman, Current Anthropology, Vol. 42, No. i, Feb 2001, pp. 69–95.
  56. ^ "People and races", Alice Mossie Brues, Waveland Press, 1990, notes how the term Caucasoid replaced Caucasian.
  57. ^ Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition, 1885–90, T11, p. 476.
  58. ^ Wright, Arnold (1915). Southern Bharat, Its History, People, Commerce, and Industrial Resources. Foreign and Colonial Compiling and Publishing Company. p. 69.
  59. ^ Sharma, Ram Nath; Sharma, Rajendra Thou. (1997). Anthropology. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 109. ISBN978-81-7156-673-0.
  60. ^ Mhaiske, Vinod M.; Patil, Vinayak K.; Narkhede, S. S. (Jan ane, 2016). Wood Tribology And Anthropology. Scientific Publishers. p. five. ISBN978-93-86102-08-9.
  61. ^ Simpson, George Eaton; Yinger, John Milton (1985). Racial and cultural minorities: an analysis of prejudice and discrimination, Environment, evolution, and public policy. Springer. p. 32. ISBN978-0-306-41777-i.
  62. ^ American anthropologist, American Anthropological Association, Anthropological Society of Washington (Washington, D.C,), 1984 v. 86, nos. 3–four, p. 741.
  63. ^ T. H. Huxley, "On the Geographical Distribution of the Primary Modifications of Mankind", Journal of the Ethnological Guild of London (1870).
  64. ^ Grolier Incorporated (2001) [First published 1833]. Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 6. Grolier Incorporated. p. 85. ISBN978-0-7172-0134-1.
  65. ^ Wells, H. G. (1921). The outline of history, existence a plainly history of life and mankind. The Macmillan Company. pp. 119–123, 236–238. Retrieved August 8, 2017.
  66. ^ Carleton South. Coon, The Races of Europe (1930)[ folio needed ] Race and Racism: An Introduction (see also) by Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban, pp 127–133, December 8, 2005, ISBN 0759107955 Dmitry Bogatenkov; Stanislav Drobyshev. "Anthropology and Ethnic History" (in Russian). Peoples' Friendship University of Russian federation.
  67. ^ Dmitry Bogatenkov; Stanislav Drobyshev. "Racial variety of Flesh, section five.5.iii" (in Russian). Peoples' Friendship University of Russian federation.
  68. ^ Schoolhouse Bakai - Ethnogenesis the Due north Caucasus ethnic population
  69. ^ Beals, Ralph L.; Hoijer, Harry (1953). An Introduction to Anthropology. New York: The Macmillan Company.
  70. ^ Listed according to: Nida, Eugene Albert (1954). Community and Cultures: Anthropology for Christian Missions . New York: Harper and Brothers. p. 283.
  71. ^ Painter, Nell Irvin (2003). "Collective Deposition: Slavery and the Structure of Race. Why White People are Called Caucasian" (PDF). Yale University. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2013. Retrieved October 9, 2006.
  72. ^ Karen R. Humes; Nicholas A. Jones; Roberto R. Ramirez, eds. (March 2011). "Definition of Race Categories Used in the 2010 Census" (PDF). United states of america Census Bureau. p. iii. Retrieved April 25, 2014.
  73. ^ Coulson, Doug (2015). "British Imperialism, the Indian Independence Move, and the Racial Eligibility Provisions of the Naturalization Deed: United States v. Thind Revisited". Georgetown Journal of Law & Mod Critical Race Perspectives. 7: 1–42. SSRN 2610266.
  74. ^ "Not All Caucasians Are White: The Supreme Courtroom Rejects Citizenship for Asian Indians", History Matters
  75. ^ "Other Notable MeSH Changes and Related Bear upon on Searching: Ethnic Groups and Geographic Origins". NLM Technical Bulletin. 335 (November–Dec). 2003. The MeSH term Racial Stocks and its 4 children (Australoid Race, Caucasoid Race, Mongoloid Race, and Negroid Race) have been deleted from MeSH in 2004. A new heading, Continental Population Groups, has been created with new identification that emphasize geography.

Bibliography

  • Camberg, Kim (December xiii, 2005). "Long-term tensions behind Sydney riots". BBC News . Retrieved March 3, 2007.
  • Figal, Sara Eigen (April 15, 2010). Heredity, Race, and the Nascency of the Modernistic. Routledge. ISBN978-1-135-89161-9.
  • Leroi, Armand Marie (March 14, 2005). "A Family Tree in Every Gene". The New York Times. p. A23.
  • Lewontin, Richard (2005). "Confusions Nearly Human Races". Race and Genomics, Social Sciences Research Council. Retrieved December 28, 2006.
  • Painter, Nell Irvin (2003). "Collective Degradation: Slavery and the Construction of Race. Why White People are Chosen Caucasian" (PDF). Yale University. Archived from the original (PDF) on October xx, 2013. Retrieved October nine, 2006.
  • Risch Northward, Burchard E, Ziv E, & Tang H (July 2002). "Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and illness". Genome Biol. 3 (7): comment2007.2001–12. doi:10.1186/gb-2002-iii-7-comment2007. PMC139378. PMID 12184798. {{cite periodical}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Rosenberg NA, Pritchard JK, Weber JL, et al. (Dec 2002). "Genetic structure of human being populations". Science. 298 (5602): 2381–85. Bibcode:2002Sci...298.2381R. doi:10.1126/scientific discipline.1078311. PMID 12493913. S2CID 8127224.
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Literature

  • Augstein, HF (1999). "From the Land of the Bible to the Caucasus and Across". In Harris, Bernard; Ernst, Waltraud (eds.). Race, Science and Medicine, 1700–1960. New York: Routledge. pp. 58–79. ISBN978-0-415-18152-5.
  • Baum, Bruce (2006). The rising and fall of the Caucasian race: a political history of racial identity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN978-0-8147-9892-8.
  • Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich (1775) On the Natural Varieties of Mankind – the volume that introduced the concept
  • Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (2000). Genes, Peoples and Languages. London: Allen Lane. ISBN978-0-7139-9486-5.
  • Gould, Stephen Jay (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton. ISBN978-0-393-01489-1. – a history of the pseudoscience of race, skull measurements, and IQ inheritability
  • Guthrie, Paul (1999). The Making of the Whiteman: From the Original Man to the Whiteman. Chicago: Inquiry Associates School Times. ISBN978-0-948390-49-4.
  • Piazza, Alberto; Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca & Menozzi, Paolo (1996). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Academy Press. ISBN978-0-691-02905-4. – a major reference of mod population genetics
  • Stoddard, Theodore Lothrop (1924). Racial Realities in Europe. New York: Charles Scribner'southward Sons.
  • Wolf, Eric R. & Cole, John N. (1999). The Hidden Frontier: Ecology and Ethnicity in an Alpine Valley. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-21681-5.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_race

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